Monday, March 18, 2024

U.S. Solar Eclipse April 8: Prepare for Safe Viewing

This great Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun will cross the United States Monday Afternoon, 2024 April 8. All areas of the United States will see the eclipse, although a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun will only be seen in a narrow Path of Totality across the country from Texas to Maine. NO PARTIAL PHASE OF ANY SOLAR ECLIPSE / ECLIPSE OF THE SUN IS SAFE TO LOOK AT DIRECTLY, UNLESS YOU HAVE THE PROPER EQUIPMENT AND PROPER TRAINING TO DO SO SAFELY; OTHERWISE EYE-SIGHT COULD BE DAMAGED PERMANENTLY! This graphic shows one way to safely view the partial phases of a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun by building a Solar Pinhole Viewing Box (a.k.a. Pinhole Camera) as shown above. After building this box, you must turn your back to the Sun and allow the light from the Sun to go through the pinhole and shine on a white piece of paper on the other end of the box (NEVER LOOK THROUGH THE PINHOLE AT THE SUN!).

More Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun: Tips for Safe Viewing:

Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/FAQ/soleclipse/solareclipseviewingtips.html

(Graphic Source: Eric G. Canali, former Floor Operations Manager of the original Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science / Buhl Science Center (America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science and technology museum from 1939 to 1991) and Founder of the South Hills Backyard Astronomers amateur astronomy club.

By Glenn A. Walsh

Reporting for SpaceWatchtower

One of the greatest coincidences in nature is a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, when the size of the Sun and the size of the Moon when viewed from Earth during an Eclipse coincide. Such an amazing Eclipse will cross much of the United States, as well as parts of Maritime Canada and central Mexico, on April 8, similar to how another such Eclipse crossed much of the United States in 2017. However, eye safety must be of paramount importance for anyone wanting to view this miraculous event.

For areas where inclement weather precludes direct viewing of the Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, or for areas of the world where this Eclipse will not be visible in the sky, a Live-Stream Web-Cast of the event will be available on the Internet. The Internet link to this Live-Stream Web-Cast is available near the end of this blog-post.

During a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun, the Moon completely obscures the surface of the Sun; it is only during the short time when the surface of the Sun is completely blocked from view (for the April 8 Eclipse: approximately 4 minutes and 28 seconds) that the Eclipse can looked at without safety equipment. And during this time, often the Solar Corona (outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere, which is safe to look at so long as the rest of the Sun's surface is blocked from view) can be seen around the shadow outline of the Moon, and planets and stars can also sometimes be seen at this time. Birds and wildlife often begin nighttime behaviors and the air, no longer heated by the Sun, feels cooler.

Where Will This Eclipse Be Visible ?

The Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun will be visible early Monday Afternoon, 2024 April 8, along a narrow strip of land known as the Path of Totality from Texas to Maine. This includes the states of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, plus small parts of Tennessee and Michigan. This will include several cities and populated areas including San Antonio, Austin, Dallas / Fort Worth, Idabel OK, Little Rock AR, Poplar Bluff MO, Cape Girardeau MO, Paducah KY, Carbondale IL, Evansville IN, Bloomington IN, Indianapolis, Terre Haute IN, Dayton OH, Toledo OH, Akron OH, Cleveland, Erie PA, Buffalo, Rochester NY, Syracuse NY, Burlington VT, Montpelier VT, Lancaster NH, Caribou ME, and Presque Isle, ME.

All other parts of the contiguous 48 states of the United States will observe a Partial Solar Eclipse / Partial Eclipse of the Sun. Of course all observations in the sky are weather-permitting.

In Canada, this Eclipse will be visible in southern Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia (Cape Breton Island), and Newfoundland before passing into the Atlantic Ocean. This includes the cities and populated areas of Niagara Falls ON, Hamilton ON, Montreal, Fredericton NB, and Gander NL.

In Mexico, the Eclipse enters North America from the Pacific Ocean at Mazatlan. The Eclipse then travels north-east through Torreon, and enters Texas southwest of San Antonio.

When Will This Eclipse Be Visible ?

The times of this Eclipse, or any Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun, varies from one city to another. This is due to the fact that the Moon, and the Moon's shadow, is continually moving throughout any such Eclipse event.

In general, this Eclipse begins on Monday, 2024 April 8 in late morning in Mexico and shortly after local Noon in Texas and concludes in Maritime Canada in the late afternoon. The time of the Path of Totality (for this Eclipse, a fairly long 4 minutes and 28 seconds, approximately) would occur approximately half-way between the beginning and ending of the Eclipse in your area. These times are based on Local Daylight Saving Time, except in Mexico which recently converted to Local Standard Time year-round.

If you live in or near one of the states or cities which will observe this Eclipse, check with your local planetarium, science center or museum, or college or high school science department to find out the specific times in your area. Otherwise, check an Internet browser, which may be able to provide such specific times.

The last Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun visible in the United States was known as the Great American Solar Eclipse on Monday Afternoon, 2017 August 21. The next such Eclipse visible from the 48 contiguous states will occur on 2044 August 23.

Eclipses usually come in pairs, and sometimes in threes. Hence, usually a Lunar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Moon precedes or follows a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun by a couple weeks. This month a deep Penumbral Lunar Eclipse / Penumbral Eclipse of the Moon, the first Eclipse of 2024, will precede the April 8 Eclipse a week from today, early on Monday Morning, 2024 March 25.

How to Safely View This Eclipse & Any Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun ---

NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY AT ANY SOLAR ECLIPSE / ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, UNLESS YOU HAVE THE PROPER EQUIPMENT AND PROPER TRAINING TO DO SO SAFELY !!!

First, there is only one time when a Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun can be viewed safely, with the naked-eyes (one-power), without the use of additional safety equipment. This is during the very short time-span (for the April 8 Eclipse: approximately 4 minutes and 28 seconds) when the SURFACE OF THE SUN IS COMPLETELY OBSCURED BY THE MOON. ANY OTHER TIME, WHEN ANY PART OF THE SURFACE OF THE SUN IS VISIBLE, MUST BE VIEWED WITH THE PROPER SAFETY EQUIPMENT TO PREVENT DAMAGE TO THE EYES.

Safe Ways to View a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun, When Any Portion of Solar Disk is Visible

1) "Solar Eclipse Glasses” – Over the last 30 years, technology has provided a safe way to view a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun. “Solar Eclipse Glasses,” or often just called “Eclipse Glasses,” have lenses made of aluminized and optical-grade Mylar (SPECIAL NOTE: Mylar used on Mylar balloons or food wrappers are NOT optical-grade), so dense that only light from the Sun can be seen with such Eclipse Glasses (more than 1,000 times darker than normal sunglasses!). Cheap, fake Eclipse Glasses have been advertised for sale, but should NEVER BE USED!

    Legitimate Solar Eclipse Glasses should include the following number printed on the side of the glasses: ISO 12312-2. This number means that pair of Solar Eclipse Glasses meets the safety requirements of the ISO 12312-2 International Standard.

    To avoid the purchase of fake Eclipse Glasses, only buy or use Eclipse Glasses approved by the American Astronomical Society; go to this web-page on the American Astronomical Society web-site to read a list of the approved vendors of safe Eclipse Glasses:

    https://eclipse.aas.org/resources/solar-filters >

    Some local planetaria and science centers and museums are selling Eclipse Glasses in their gift shops. Also, a very limited number of Eclipse Glasses are being given-away at a limited number of local libraries (one pair of Eclipse Glasses per person).

    The following are instructions on how to properly handle and use Eclipse Glasses:

    a) Eclipse Glasses are fragile and should be treated gently at all times. It would be best to store the Eclipse Glasses in an envelope.

    b) BEFORE EVERY USE, point the Eclipse Glasses toward an artificial light source (i.e. lit light bulb). If any light can be seen coming through the Eclipse Glasses, or if any damage (scratches, tears or small holes or pin-holes) is seen on the lenses (check front and back of both lenses), or if the Mylar lenses are starting to separate from the cardboard frames of the Eclipse Glasses, that pair of Eclipse Glasses should be discarded (tear or cut Eclipse Glasses into small pieces, so no one accidentally uses them). USE OF DAMAGED ECLIPSE GLASSES WOULD ALLOW DANGEROUS SUNLIGHT TO ENTER THE EYES, WHICH COULD LEAD TO EYE-SIGHT DAMAGE.

    c) For people wearing eye-glasses, Eclipse Glasses should be placed over-top the eye-glasses--that is, sunlight should enter the Eclipse Glasses before entering the eye-glasses.

    d) NEVER use Eclipse Glasses with any camera (including cell-phone or smart-phone cameras), telescope, binoculars, or any optical aid or device (except eye-glasses) that magnifies an image (or reflection of a magnified image); Eclipse Glasses are only designed to be used with the naked-eyes (one-power) or with eye-glasses.

    e) DO NOT attempt to clean or disinfect Eclipse Glasses lenses with water or any other cleaning agent. If Eclipse Glasses are carefully taken care-of, including storage in an envelope, cleaning lenses should not be necessary. If dust is a concern, do nothing more than gently blow-off dust.

    f) NEVER use any "home-made" or "hand-made" Solar Eclipse Glasses, or any Solar Eclipse Glasses produced by a vendor that is not approved by the American Astronomical Society. Such Eclipse Glasses have no quality control in production, hence there is no way to know if such Eclipse Glasses are safe for eye-sight.

    g) Eclipse Glasses are NOT toys. ECLIPSE GLASSES SHOULD ONLY BE USED BY CHILDREN, WITH ADULT SUPERVISION !

  1. Solar Pinhole Viewing Box – The graphic at the beginning of this blog-post shows an indirect way to safely view the partial phases of a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun (which includes Solar Eclipses / Eclipses of the Sun described as "Annular" or "Hybrid"), by building a Solar Pinhole Viewing Box (known as a Pinhole Camera). After building this box, you must turn your back to the Sun and allow the light from the Sun to shine through a pinhole (placed in a sheet of aluminum foil, adhered to the center of one end of the box) and shine on a white piece of typing, printer, or photocopy paper at the other end of the box; a small image of the Partial Solar Eclipse / Partial Eclipse of the Sun (which includes Solar Eclipses / Eclipses of the Sun described as "Annular" or "Hybrid") can then be seen projected on the white piece of paper. Do not expect a large or bright image of the Sun, since the pinhole cannot enlarge or brighten the image. NEVER LOOK THROUGH THE PINHOLE AT THE SUN! Of course, there are several variations on the idea of the Solar Pinhole Viewing Box including the simple use of two pieces of paper, one white with the other having the pinhole; in forests, natural pinhole cameras are sometimes formed through the dense foliage, with small images of the eclipsed Sun appearing on the ground.

    3) Public Observing Events – Often Science and educational institutions will sponsor public observing events where professional astronomical equipment, operated by trained astronomers, provide safe public viewing of a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun or Solar Transit of a Planet. Such institutions may also include live Internet video-streaming of the event from NASA or other science organizations, particularly for a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun where the institution's telescope observation cannot show a Total Eclipse, or when weather precludes local telescope observations of the event. Check with a local planetarium, astronomical observatory, science center or science museum, the science department (particularly if there is an astronomy or physics department) of a local college or university (or, possibly, high school), amateur astronomy club, or local library, to see if they are sponsoring such an event.

    4) SHADE RATING NUMBER 14 WELDER'S GLASS – SHADE RATING NUMBER 14 WELDER'S GLASS (AND ONLY WELDER'S GLASS RATED AT SHADE NUMBER 14, THE DARKEST SHADE AVAILABLE, IS STRONG ENOUGH TO BE SAFE FOR EYE-SIGHT) is safe enough for normal welding jobs and may be safe (but there are no guarantees) to view a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun; welder's glass is designed specifically for welding jobs, not for solar observing. HOWEVER, only use Welder's Glass rated at Shade Number 14; as with sunglasses, it is NOT SAFE to stack several lighter shades of welder's glass together. Although Shade Rating Number 14 Welder's Glass may be safe, since the Sun is so bright, using a Shade Rating Number 14 Welder's Glass can be uncomfortable.

      5) Internet or Television – Of course, the safest way to view any special solar event is on an Internet Web-Cast or a Television Newscast or special program. Often during special solar events such a Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun or a Solar Transit of a Planet, professional organizations such as NASA, TimeandDate.com, Los Angeles' Griffith Observatory, and Slooh Community Observatory provide web-casts on the Internet of such special events; check the specific web-site for a schedule of such web-casts. For a very special event, sometimes television stations and / or networks, particularly Cable Television Channels specializing in news or Science, will also broadcast the event; check local listings for time and channel.

      Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun Research ---

      NASA, academic institutions, and Citizen Scientists will be conducting scientific research during the April 8 Eclipse. Such research is nothing new. It was during the 1919 Total Solar Eclipse / Total Eclipse of the Sun that astronomers confirmed Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity.

      On April 8, NASA will launch three sounding rockets from Wallops Island, Virginia, to study how the sudden drop in sunlight during the Eclipse affects Earth's Upper Atmosphere. The first rocket will be launched 35 minutes before local peak Eclipse. The second rocket will be launched during local peak Eclipse, when the Earth's Ionosphere experiences maximum shielding from solar radiation. The third rocket will be launched 35 minutes after the local peak Eclipse as solar radiation once again reaches the Ionosphere.

      Other NASA research will include chasing the Eclipse with NASA's High-Altitude Research Airplanes, Airborne Imaging and Spectroscopic Observations of the Solar Corona, and the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) where radar signals bounced off the Ionosphere will be analyzed.

      Fifty-three teams made up of 750 student participants from 75 participating academic institutions will be involved in the Nationwide Eclipse Ballooning Project. Engineering teams and Atmospheric Science teams will also be studying the Earth's Ionosphere. This will include live-stream video, weather sensors, and individually-designed experiments. One team will use the 34-meter Goldstone Apple Valley Radio Telescope (GAVRT) to observe solar “active regions”, which often have sunspots.

      NASA also has several research projects for which the general public can participate as Citizen Scientists. Near the end of this blog-post is an Internet link to a listing of these projects.

Live-Stream Web-Cast of Eclipse, for areas with inclement weather or parts of the world where Eclipse is not visible in the sky:

Link >>> https://www.timeanddate.com/live/eclipse-solar-2024-april-8

Solar Eclipse / Eclipse of the Sun: Tips for Safe Viewing:

Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/FAQ/soleclipse/solareclipseviewingtips.html

NASA Citizen Science Projects Regarding the Eclipse:

Link >>> https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/eclipse-2024-citizen-science/

Internet Links to Additional Information ---

Sun: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun

Moon: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon

Solar Corona: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_corona

NASA Studies Solar & Earth Atmospheres during Eclipse:

Link >>> https://science.nasa.gov/eclipses/future-eclipses/eclipse-2024/eclipse-2024-science/

Related Blog-Posts ---

"100 Years Ago: U.S. Scientist Questions Evidence Proving General Theory of Relativity." Wed., 2019 Nov. 13.


"Great American Solar Eclipse Next Monday: Some Ways to See It Safely." Mon. 2017 Aug. 14.

Source: Glenn A. Walsh Reporting for SpaceWatchtower, a project of Friends of the Zeiss     

               "U.S. Solar Eclipse April 8: Prepare for Safe Viewing"

                  Monday, 2024 March 18.

            Artificial Intelligence not used in the writing of this article.

            © Copyright 2024 Glenn A. Walsh, All Rights Reserved

                             Like This Post? Please Share!

More Astronomy & Science News - SpaceWatchtower 'X' / Twitter Feed:
Link >>> https://twitter.com/spacewatchtower

Astronomy & Science Links: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/#sciencelinks

Want to receive SpaceWatchtower blog posts in your in-box ?
Send request to < spacewatchtower@planetarium.cc >.

gaw

Glenn A. Walsh, Informal Science Educator & Communicator                                                             (For more than 50 years! - Since Monday Morning, 1972 June 12):
Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/weblog/spacewatchtower/gaw/
Electronic Mail: < gawalsh@planetarium.cc >
Project Director, Friends of the Zeiss: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/fotz/
SpaceWatchtower Editor / Author: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/
Formerly Astronomical Observatory Coordinator & Planetarium Lecturer, original Buhl Planetarium & Institute of Popular Science (a.k.a. Buhl Science Center), America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science & technology museum from 1939 to 1991.
Formerly Trustee, Andrew Carnegie Free Library and Music Hall, Pittsburgh suburb of Carnegie, Pennsylvania, the fourth of only five libraries where both construction and endowment funded by famous industrialist & philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
Author of History Web Sites on the Internet --
* Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh: Link >>> http://www.planetarium.cc Buhl Observatory: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2016/11/75th-anniversary-americas-5th-public.html
* Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Link >>> http://adlerplanetarium.tripod.com
* Astronomer, Educator, Optician John A. Brashear: Link >>> http://johnbrashear.tripod.com
* Andrew Carnegie & Carnegie Libraries: Link >>> http://www.andrewcarnegie.cc

 * Other Walsh-Authored Blog & Web-Sites: Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/gawweb.html

Spring Begins at Vernal Equinox Tue. Night

    http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/pix/graphics/solsticeimage008.png

This diagram shows the position of the Earth, in relation to the Sun, at the time of the Vernal Equinox at the official beginning of the season of Spring in the Earth's Northern Hemisphere (Autumn in Earth's Southern Hemisphere), as well as the other equinox and solstices of the year.

(Graphic Source: ©1999, Eric G. Canali, former Floor Operations Manager of the original Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science / Buhl Science Center, America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science and technology museum from 1939 to 1991, and Founder of the South Hills Backyard Astronomers amateur astronomy club; permission granted for only non-profit use with credit to author.) 

By Glenn A. Walsh

Reporting for SpaceWatchtower

Spring begins Tuesday Evening at the moment of the Vernal Equinox in Earth's Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere of Earth, this marks the astronomical beginning of the season of Autumn.

The Vernal Equinox occurs on Earth at precisely: Tuesday Evening, 2024 March 19 at 11:06 p.m. Eastern Daylight Saving Time (EDT) / March 20 at 3:06 Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). While Spring usually begins on March 20 or March 21, the March 19 start date for Spring this year is due to 2024 being a Leap-Year; the extra day in February means that the Vernal Equinox begins on an earlier date.

As the diagram at the beginning of this blog-post demonstrates, on the day of Equinox the Sun appears directly overhead at local Noon on the Equator. At the moment of Equinox, the Northern and Southern Hemispheres of Earth are illuminated equally. And, the time of Equinox is the only time when the Earth Terminator (dividing line on Earth between daylight and darkness) is perpendicular to the Equator.

This, and the reason for seasons on Earth in the first place, is due to the fact that Earth rotates on its axis, which is tilted at a 23.439281-degree angle from the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun, which is part of the Ecliptic of our Solar System. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, this axial tilt causes one hemisphere of the planet to receive more direct solar radiation during that hemisphere's season of Summer and much less direct solar radiation a half-year later during that hemisphere's season of Winter. As mentioned, during an Equinox (about half-way between Summer and Winter, and about half-way between Winter and Summer) both planetary hemispheres receive an equal amount of solar radiation.

"Vernal" is a Latin term for Spring. Although "Equinox" in Latin means equal-night, the day of the Equinox does not actually have an equal amount of daylight and nightfall, as it appears on the Earth's surface. If the Sun was just a pin-point of light in our sky, as all other stars appear, day and night would be equal.

But, because the Sun is a disk, part of the Sun has risen above the horizon before the center of the Sun (which would be the pin-point of light); so there are extra moments of light on the Equinox. Likewise, part of the Sun is still visible, after the center of the Sun has set.

Additionally, the refraction of sunlight by our atmosphere causes sunlight to appear above the horizon, before sunrise and after sunset.

As the Equinox occurs a day earlier due to Leap-Year, so does this year's Equilux. This year, Equilux occurred on March 16. Most years, in addition to being St. Patrick's Day, the Equilux usually occurs on March 17. Equilux ("equal-light") is the actual day with equal hours and minutes of the Sun above the horizon, and equal hours and minutes of the Sun below the horizon. The Equilux occurs twice each year, approximately 3-to-4 days before the Vernal Equinox and 3-to-4 days after the Autumnal Equinox (Equilux is on September 25, while the Autumnal Equinox is ~ September 22 or 23).

An urban legend that has been making the rounds for decades, now exacerbated by the Internet and Social Media, has it that eggs can be stood on their ends only during an Equinox, whether the Vernal Equinox in the Spring or the Autumnal Equinox in the Fall. This is completely false!

Depending greatly on the size and shape of the particular egg, eggs can be stood on their ends any day of the year! Astronomy has nothing to do with whether an egg can stand on its end. If an egg can stand on its end on the Equinox (and, due to the shape and size of some eggs, this is not even possible), it can stand the same way any other day of the year.

In the last few years, with the help of the Internet and Social Media, another urban legend has become prevalent. Now it is claimed that brooms can stand, on their own, on their bristles, only on an Equinox day. This is also false! Again, as with eggs, if a broom can stand on its bristles by itself (this usually only works with newer brooms, with more even and stiff bristles) on an Equinox, it can do so any day of the year!

In ancient times, the Vernal Equinox was considered the beginning of the new calendar year, as Spring brought new life after the cold Winter months. The calendar year was then defined as the time from one Vernal Equinox to the next. This is known as the Tropical Year: 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 45 seconds.

This was when most of Western Civilization used the Julian Calendar, recommended by astronomer Sosigenes and approved by Roman leader Julius Caesar in 46 B.C. Due to the difference between the Julian Calendar and the calendar we use today, known as the Gregorian Calendar, the Vernal Equinox then occurred on March 25, later observed by Christians as the Feast of the Annunciation (observed nine full months before Christmas Day). As part of the Gregorian Calendar reform, in October of 1582, Roman Catholic Pope Gregory XIII chose the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ (January 1) as the beginning of the New Year in the Roman Catholic Church's Liturgical Year.

As a legacy to the Vernal Equinox originally considered the beginning of the New Year, astronomers have set the Vernal Equinox as the beginning point of the coordinate system in the sky. Astronomers measure the sky using Right Ascension (measured in hours, minutes, and seconds), which is analogous to Longitude on Earth, and Declination (measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds), which is analogous to Latitude on Earth. Precisely on the Vernal Equinox each year, the sky coordinates are reset to Right Ascension 0 hour, 0 minute, 0 second, and Declination 0 degree, 0 minute, 0 second.

The Vernal Equinox continues to be considered the beginning of the New Year, or an important holy day, in several other places on Earth ---

* Beginning of New Year (using the Solar Calendar) - Nowruz: Afghanistan and Iran / Persia.

* Holy Day for adherents of the Zoroastrian Religion (the three Magi, who the Christian Bible reports visited the Christ Child after following the Star of Bethlehem / Christmas Star, were adherents of the Zoroastrian Religion).

* Holy Day for adherents of the Bahá'í Faith: Baha'i Naw-Ruz, one of nine holy days of the Bahá'í Faith.

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) observe Sun - Earth Day on or near the Vernal Equinox. This is a joint educational program started in 2000, to popularize the knowledge about the Sun, and the way it influences life on Earth, among students and the public. This is part of Solar Week, which is the calendar week that includes the Vernal Equinox.

March 20, usually the date of the Vernal Equinox, is also considered Women in Science Day or Hypatia Day. Hypatia was an astronomer, mathematician, philosopher, and teacher in 5th century Alexandria, Egypt, then part of the Eastern Roman Empire. She was a prominent thinker in Alexandria whose murder (in March of A.D. 415) shocked the Empire; she became a secular “martyr for philosophy”. The Vernal Equinox is considered a logical day to celebrate the life of Hypatia, as her last days were dedicated to finding the precise time of the Vernal Equinox, as a means to set the date of Easter.

The first week of Spring, beginning with the Vernal Equinox, has been declared by physicians as Medicine Cabinet Clean-Up Week. To avoid prescription drug abuse, particularly important at this time of the opioid crisis, physicians encourage everyone to get rid of unused and no-longer-needed medications and other drugs, which may have lingered in the household, as part of an annual Spring cleaning. Several states have prescription drug take-back locations, where these drugs can be dropped-off; some are located in pharmacies and / or municipal building lobbies.

The week of the Vernal Equinox is also the beginning of the National Cherry Blossom Festival held each year in Washington, DC, which begins on March 20. This festival commemorates the 1912 gift of 3,000 cherry trees from the Mayor of Tokyo to the City of Washington. The festival runs through April 14 this year. For 2024, the National Park Service predicts the Peak Bloom of the Cherry Blossoms will be March 23 to March 26.

This year, the Full Moon Primary Phase, on Monday, 2024 March 25 at 3:00 a.m. EDT / 7:00 UTC, also brings a deep Penumbral Lunar Eclipse / Penumbral Eclipse of the Moon, with the greatest eclipse on Monday, 2024 March 25 at 3:12:50.9 a.m. EDT / 7:12:50.9 UTC. Penumbral Eclipses are difficult to observe. You would need to notice the brightness of the Moon before the Eclipse begins, and then see if you can discern a noticeable decrease in brightness during the time of greatest eclipse.

Internet Links to Additional Information ---

Vernal Equinox -

Link 1 >>> https://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/VernalEquinox.html

Link 2 >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_equinox

Season of Spring: Link >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_%28season%29

Equinox: Link >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinox

Earth's Seasons: Link >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season

Tilt of a Planet's Axis: Link >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt

Sun - Earth Day: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-Earth_Day 

Women in Science Day / Hypatia Day: Link >>> https://www.change.org/p/canada-s-parliament-commemorating-the-first-female-astronomer-hypatia-of-alexandria

Medicine Cabinet Clean-Up Week: Link >>> https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/include-medicine-cabinets-on-your-spring-cleaning-list-300042760.html 

National Cherry Blossom Festival: Link >>> https://nationalcherryblossomfestival.org/

Related Blog-Post ---

"Solar Calendar Leap-Year Day Eclipse in 1504 Saves Columbus' Crew." Thur., 2024 Feb. 29.

Link >>> https://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2024/02/solar-calendar-leap-year-day-eclipse.html

Source: Glenn A. Walsh Reporting for SpaceWatchtower, a project of Friends of the Zeiss     

               "Spring Begins at Vernal Equinox Tue. Night"

                  Monday, 2024 March 18.

            Artificial Intelligence not used in the writing of this article.

            © Copyright 2024 Glenn A. Walsh, All Rights Reserved

                             Like This Post? Please Share!

More Astronomy & Science News - SpaceWatchtower 'X' / Twitter Feed:
Link >>> https://twitter.com/spacewatchtower

Astronomy & Science Links: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/#sciencelinks

Want to receive SpaceWatchtower blog posts in your in-box ?
Send request to < spacewatchtower@planetarium.cc >.

gaw

Glenn A. Walsh, Informal Science Educator & Communicator                                                             (For more than 50 years! - Since Monday Morning, 1972 June 12):
Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/weblog/spacewatchtower/gaw/
Electronic Mail: < gawalsh@planetarium.cc >
Project Director, Friends of the Zeiss: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/fotz/
SpaceWatchtower Editor / Author: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/
Formerly Astronomical Observatory Coordinator & Planetarium Lecturer, original Buhl Planetarium & Institute of Popular Science (a.k.a. Buhl Science Center), America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science & technology museum from 1939 to 1991.
Formerly Trustee, Andrew Carnegie Free Library and Music Hall, Pittsburgh suburb of Carnegie, Pennsylvania, the fourth of only five libraries where both construction and endowment funded by famous industrialist & philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
Author of History Web Sites on the Internet --
* Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh: Link >>> http://www.planetarium.cc Buhl Observatory: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2016/11/75th-anniversary-americas-5th-public.html
* Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Link >>> http://adlerplanetarium.tripod.com
* Astronomer, Educator, Optician John A. Brashear: Link >>> http://johnbrashear.tripod.com
* Andrew Carnegie & Carnegie Libraries: Link >>> http://www.andrewcarnegie.cc

 * Other Walsh-Authored Blog & Web-Sites: Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/gawweb.html

Thursday, February 29, 2024

Solar Calendar Leap-Year Day Eclipse in 1504 Saves Columbus' Crew

     

Illustration of explorer Christopher Columbus predicting the Eclipse of the Moon 520 years ago on 1504 February 29 to the native people of Jamaica. This drawing is taken from page 273 of the book The Romance of Spanish History with Illustrations authored by John Stevens Cabot Abbott in 1869.

(Image Sources: Wikipedia.org, By Camille Flammarion - Astronomie Populaire 1879, p231 fig. 86, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3613218)

By Glenn A. Walsh

Reporting for SpaceWatchtower

Today (Thursday, 2024 February 29) marks Leap-Year Day, the day of the Solar Calendar that comes around, usually once every four years. On the Leap-Year Day in 1504, explorer Christopher Columbus' crew was saved from starvation, when an Eclipse of the Moon was used to scare native Jamaicans to resume feeding the ship-wrecked crew.

Beginning of Leap-Year Day

The need for a Leap-Year Day became very apparent even before what many today refer to as the “Common Era (C.E.)”, better known as Anno Domini or A.D. (“in the year of the Lord”), the era after the birth of Jesus Christ of the Christian Bible. The early calendars did not properly align with the seasons and the feasts and festivals of a year; festivals would slip out of sync with the seasons as reckoned by the Sun and Moon. A calendar system was needed that would more closely align with the astronomical movements of the Sun, Moon, and Earth.

A calendar with a Leap-Year Day was first proposed during the rule of Julius Caesar in 46 B.C. This calendar first took effect on 45 B.C. January 1.

This calendar was a reform of the earlier Roman Calendar, which was a Luni-Solar Calendar. By edict, the Julian Calendar became the official calendar of the Roman Empire and the predominant calendar for most of the Western World for 1,600 years, until the Pope Gregory XIII Calendar Reform of 1582.

This Julian Calendar is composed of 365 days for three years and 366 days each fourth year, the Leap-Year---without exception. This meant that the average year was 365.25 days in length, which was 11 minutes longer than the actual length of the Tropical Year, also known as the Solar Year, (determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun): ~365.24210 days. So, the Julian Calendar gains 1 day every 129 years and 3.1 days every 400 years. Since the year 1900 and until the year 2099, February 29 in the Julian Calendar falls 13 days later than February 29 in the Gregorian Calendar.

The Julian Calendar Rule was modified by the Gregorian Calendar Reform, so that the average length of the year was reduced from 365.25 days to 365.2425 days. This corrected the Julian Calendar's calendar drift against the Solar Year, so that the Gregorian Calendar only gains 0.1 day every 400 years or 1 day every 3,300 years.

The Gregorian Calendar, now the most commonly-used civil calendar in the world, adds a day (February 29) in each year divisible by 4, except in years evenly divisible by 100 (but not by 400). This means that the years 1700, 1800, 1900, and 2100 do not have a Leap-Year Day, but the years 1600 and 2000 did have a Leap-Year Day.

Following the issuance of a Papal Bull Inter Gravissimas by Roman Catholic Church Pope Gregory XIII in October of 1582, all Catholic countries started observing the Gregorian Calendar, introduced as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian Calendar. With this change, Thursday, 1582 October 4 was immediately followed by Friday, 1582 October 15, an advance of 10 days.

According to the science advisers to Pope Gregory XIII, the calendar had acquired 10 extra Leap-Year Days since the First Council of Nicaea, which had established the rule for dating Easter Sunday in A.D. 325. Hence, 10 days needed to be skipped to restore the status quo.

This reform also included an alteration in the Lunar Cycle used by the Roman Catholic Church to calculate the date for Easter. Previously, an Astronomical New Moon Phase would occur 4 days before the calculated date.

While most Roman Catholic countries accepted the Pope's reform, Protestant and Orthodox countries did not. Great Britain and its possessions, including the American colonies and Canada, adopted the change in 1752, with no mention of Pope Gregory XIII. The Julian Calendar was simply referred as to the Old Style (O.S.) dates and the Gregorian Calendar was referred to as the New Style (N.S.) dates.

By this time, an additional Leap-Year Day had passed on the Old Style Calendar. This extra Leap-Year Day occurred during the Old Style Calendar year 1700; had the New Style Calendar been in effect in 1700, there would have been no Leap-Year Day that year. So, 11 days had to be skipped to restore the status quo for the New Style Calendar.

The Gregorian Calendar, known as the New Style Calendar, became the official calendar of the Kingdom of Great Britain, Kingdom of Ireland, and the British Empire (including the American colonies and Canada) following the enactment of the Calendar Act of 1750 by the British Parliament. Hence, Wednesday, 1752 September 2 was immediately followed by Thursday, 1752 September 14. Rumors that rioters demanded, “Give us our eleven days”, seems to have been a misinterpretation of a painting by William Hogarth.

This calendar change affected the first President of the United States. George Washington was born before the calendar change. So, his official birth date was 1731 February 11 Old Style Calendar. After the calendar change occurred, his official birth date was, from then-on, recognized as 1732 February 22 New Style Calendar. His official birth year changed from 1731 to 1732 because, by Old Style Calendar reckoning, the New Year did not begin until March 25 (Lady Day: Feast of the Annunciation). Of course, with the New Style Calendar, the New Year begins on January 1.

Eastern Orthodox countries converted to the Gregorian Calendar in 1923. Eastern Orthodox Church sects, parts of Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Amazigh / Berber peoples of North Africa retained the Julian Calendar as a Liturgical or religious calendar, particularly used for their determination of the dates for Orthodox Christmas and Orthodox Easter.

In Ireland, a tradition dating back to the 5th century allows women to propose marriage to a man on February 29, known as Bachelor's Day or Ladies' Privilege; at one time, this was also legal in Scotland and England. The tradition comes from a deal struck between Saint Bridget and Saint Patrick, as Saint Bridget complained that women had to wait too long to marry because men were slow to propose. After the deal was struck, Saint Bridget proposed marriage to Saint Patrick; Saint Patrick declined and as recompense (sometimes required by law or tradition) gave Saint Bridget a kiss on the cheek and a silk dress.

Leap-Year Day is known as an intercalary, which means a date inserted between two other dates. Interestingly, originally February 24 was Leap-Year Day during the rule of Julius Caesar; on Leap-Years they simply repeated February 24 a second day!

And, February was originally the last month of the year in the Julian Calendar. In the Chinese calendar, from time-to-time an additional month is added to better align with the seasons; this last happened in 2015.

In addition to being the 60th day of a Leap-Year (306 days remain in the Leap Year) and the last day of February for 2024, February 29 is also the last day of Meteorological Winter in Earth's Northern Hemisphere (and the last day of Meteorological Summer in the Southern Hemisphere). Unlike the calendar seasons, meteorological seasons begin at the beginning of a calendar month and end on the last day of a calendar month.

The term, Leap-Year, is derived from the Leap-Year Day's effect on the calendar. During normal years, a certain date moves one day of the week so that that particular date occurs on the next day of the week in the next year. In other words, when February 28 occurs on a Monday one year, February 28 will occur on Tuesday the following year, usually. However, in a Leap-Year, February 28 would "leap-over" Tuesday and appear on Wednesday the following year.

Leap-Year babies born on February 29 are known as Leaplings. During non-Leap-Years, Leaplings usually celebrate their birthday on February 28 (most try to keep the birthday in February) or March 1.  The chance of a person on Earth being born on February 29 is 1 in 1,461.

Adherents to the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (founded in Pittsburgh in 1881), better known as Jehovah's Witnesses, do not celebrate birthdays at all. Founder Charles Taze Russell often preached at the world's first Carnegie Hall on Pittsburgh's North Side, just across the street from where Pittsburgh's original Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science would later be built in 1939.

Lunar Eclipse Saves Columbus' Crew

Since the time man first set sail on the seas, navigation by the stars was a necessity. When Christopher Columbus set sail to find an ocean route to the Far East, by sailing west, he took with him an almanac authored by Abraham Zacuto, which included astronomical tables originally calculated by the German astronomer Regiomontanus (whose real name was Johannes Muller von Konigsberg).

During Columbus' fourth and last voyage to the Americas, he lost all four ships due to an epidemic of ship-worms eating holes in the wooden ships. He was forced to beach the last two caravels on the northern coast of Jamaica on 1503 June 25. At first, the natives on Jamaica welcomed Columbus and his crew and provided them with food and other necessities, in return for items the crew could salvage from the ships.

After being marooned on Jamaica for about six months, half of Columbus' crew mutinied as well as robbing and murdering some of the natives. As the natives had also grown weary of supplying the unexpected castaways, Columbus and his crew faced famine.

Columbus came-up with an ingenious plan to save his crew. In Zacuto's almanac, Columbus noticed that a Total Eclipse of the Moon would occur on the evening of 1504 February 29 to March 1. Three days before the eclipse, Columbus met with the tribal Chief of the natives, telling him that the Christian God was angry with the Jamaican people for stopping the supply of food to Columbus and his men. Columbus told him that God would display his displeasure by all-but obliterating the rising Full Moon in three days. This Moon would be "inflamed with wrath" as an omen for what was to come for the Jamaican people.

On the predicted day and hour, the natives watched as the Moon rose with the lower edge missing. As the sky grew darker, they saw the Moon take-on a bloody-red appearance.

Ferdinand, Christopher Columbus' son, later wrote:

"The Indians observed this [the eclipse] and were so astonished and frightened that with great cries and lamentations they came running from all directions to the ships, carrying provisions and begging (...) and promising they would diligently supply all their needs in the future."

The natives begged Columbus to have his God restore the Moon. Columbus went to his cabin to "confer" with his God. He actually watched his hour-glass for the time the total phase of the eclipse would end. Just before the end of totality, Columbus reemerged from his cabin to announce to the natives that his God had pardoned them, and the Moon would slowly be restored to normal later in the night.

The Jamaican natives kept their word, and Columbus and his crew were well-supplied until a rescue ship from Hispaniola (today, the island that includes the Dominican Republic and Haiti) arrived on 1504 June 29. Columbus and his crew returned to Spain on 1504 November 7.

An interesting anecdote: When Mark Twain (the pen name for Samuel Clemens) wrote his 1889 novel, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, he was inspired by Columbus' ploy to have his main character, Hank Morgan who had inadvertently time-traveled to the era of King Arthur and Merlin the Magician, saved from execution by predicting a Solar Eclipse, and, thus, claiming power over the Sun. However, Mark Twain never checked any almanacs while writing the novel, and no eclipse actually occurred on the date he used in the novel: A.D. 528 June 21.

Internet Links to Additional Information ---

Solar Calendar: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar

Luni-Solar Calendar: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar

Julian Calendar: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

Gregorian Calendar: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar

Leap-Year: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year

Leap-Year Day: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_29

Total Lunar Eclipse of 1504 February 29 to March 1 -

NASA - Astronomical Details:
Link >>> http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/LEhistory/LEplot/LE1504Mar01T.pdf

More Information on Total Lunar Eclipse of 1504 Feb. 29:
Space.com / Joe Rao - Link 1 >>> http://www.space.com/2729-lunar-eclipse-saved-columbus.html
Wikipedia - Link 2 >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_1504_lunar_eclipse

More on Lunar Eclipses: >>> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse

Source: Glenn A. Walsh Reporting for SpaceWatchtower, a project of Friends of the Zeiss     

               "Solar Calendar Leap-Year Day Eclipse in 1504 Saves Columbus' Crew"

                  Thursday, 2024 February 29.

            Artificial Intelligence not used in the writing of this article.

            © Copyright 2024 Glenn A. Walsh, All Rights Reserved

                             Like This Post? Please Share!

More Astronomy & Science News - SpaceWatchtower 'X' / Twitter Feed:
Link >>> https://twitter.com/spacewatchtower

Astronomy & Science Links: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/#sciencelinks

Want to receive SpaceWatchtower blog posts in your in-box ?
Send request to < spacewatchtower@planetarium.cc >.

gaw

Glenn A. Walsh, Informal Science Educator & Communicator                                                             (For more than 50 years! - Since Monday Morning, 1972 June 12):
Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/weblog/spacewatchtower/gaw/
Electronic Mail: < gawalsh@planetarium.cc >
Project Director, Friends of the Zeiss: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/fotz/
SpaceWatchtower Editor / Author: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/
Formerly Astronomical Observatory Coordinator & Planetarium Lecturer, original Buhl Planetarium & Institute of Popular Science (a.k.a. Buhl Science Center), America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science & technology museum from 1939 to 1991.
Formerly Trustee, Andrew Carnegie Free Library and Music Hall, Pittsburgh suburb of Carnegie, Pennsylvania, the fourth of only five libraries where both construction and endowment funded by famous industrialist & philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
Author of History Web Sites on the Internet --
* Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh: Link >>> http://www.planetarium.cc Buhl Observatory: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2016/11/75th-anniversary-americas-5th-public.html
* Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Link >>> http://adlerplanetarium.tripod.com
* Astronomer, Educator, Optician John A. Brashear: Link >>> http://johnbrashear.tripod.com
* Andrew Carnegie & Carnegie Libraries: Link >>> http://www.andrewcarnegie.cc

 * Other Walsh-Authored Blog & Web-Sites: Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/gawweb.html

Tuesday, February 13, 2024

Sun-Blocking Space Umbrella to Cut Global Warming?

 

                          Artist's conception of a Space Umbrella deployed in Outer Space.

          (Image Source: Asher Space Research Institute of the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology)

By Glenn A. Walsh

Reporting for SpaceWatchtower

Could a giant umbrella in Outer Space reduce solar radiation hitting the Earth, and hence, contribute to a reduction in Global Warming? A proposal for a giant Sun-blocking umbrella to be constructed in Outer Space has been proposed by an Israeli physics professor.

Professor Yoram Rozen of the Asher Space Research Institute of the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology is floating the possibility that such a parasol floating in Space between the Sun and the Earth could provide some protection from advancing Climate Change. He calculates that such a large Space Umbrella could reduce solar heating of the Earth by 1 or 2 per-cent. Although this would not end Global Warming, it could be one way to reduce the heat received from the Sun.

Last year, the U.S. White House specifically announced that it was open to plans to block sunlight from hitting the Earth. In 2021, philanthropist Bill Gates had proposed spreading millions of tons of chalk dust high in the atmosphere to block sunlight; thus far, nothing has come of this proposal.

The Space Umbrella would have to be about 9 million statute miles / 14.48 million kilometers from the Earth. Scientists claim that, once deployed, the Space Umbrella could reduce the Earth's temperature by 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit within the first two years.

The Space Umbrella would consist of light-weight solar sails on a solar-powered spacecraft. It would move through Space by opening and closing the shading layer.

Such a Space Umbrella would need to be approximately one million square miles in size, about the size of the nation of Argentina! That size could not be launched at one time from Earth; sections of the Space Umbrella would have to launch separately and assembled in Space.

An alternative would be to launch a series of smaller Space Umbrellas that may add-up to about the same size. Another alternative would be to have such a Space Umbrella tethered to an asteroid.

A previous suggestion would have been to deploy dust at a La Grange Point (a location in Outer Space where the gravity between the Sun and the Earth are roughly equal, hence allowing matter at the La Grange Point to remain in one spot), so the dust would block some sunlight from reaching the Earth.

The Space Umbrella would use La Grange Point Number 1 (L1). According to the Israeli team, that point would provide a constant shading over a large portion of our planet.

Professor Rozen is now seeking $10-to-$20 million to build a prototype of a smaller size, about 100 square-feet, for construction by 2027. So far, no cost has been estimated for creating and launching a one million square-mile Space Umbrella. But, costs could reach trillions of dollars.

Skeptics of the Space Umbrella plan, including Harvard University astrophysicist Avi Loeb, note that the cost of such a large Space Umbrella(s) would be exorbitant. He said that such a plan would require international collaboration and probably reallocation of funds from the military.

Skeptics also note that launching, assembling, and maintaining such a parasol in Outer Space would be extremely challenging, similar, but to a much greater scale, to the recent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. There is also a question as to how well such a Space Umbrella could hold-up to the harsh conditions of Outer Space.

Further, a solar storm, meteor, or asteroid that damages the Space Umbrella could result in sudden and rapid warming on Earth, with possible disastrous effects and no ready way to repair such damage.

However, the non-profit Planetary Sunshade Foundation supports the Israeli proposal. They believe the project cost may not be as high as projected, as the costs of space travel continue declining.

Again, this plan, if implemented, would not be a 'silver bullet'. This would be just one way to reduce some heating of the Earth, while the nations of our planet make the hard choices needed for a more permanent solution.

Internet Links to Additional Information ---

Space Sun Shade: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade

La Grange Point: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point

Climate Change: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change

Global Warming Potential: Link >>> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming_potential

Source: Glenn A. Walsh Reporting for SpaceWatchtower, a project of Friends of the Zeiss     

               "Sun-Blocking Space Umbrella to Cut Global Warming?"

                  Tuesday, 2024 February 13.

            Artificial Intelligence not used in the writing of this article.

            © Copyright 2024 Glenn A. Walsh, All Rights Reserved

                             Like This Post? Please Share!

More Astronomy & Science News - SpaceWatchtower 'X' / Twitter Feed:
Link >>> https://twitter.com/spacewatchtower

Astronomy & Science Links: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/#sciencelinks

Want to receive SpaceWatchtower blog posts in your in-box ?
Send request to < spacewatchtower@planetarium.cc >.

gaw

Glenn A. Walsh, Informal Science Educator & Communicator                                                             (For more than 50 years! - Since Monday Morning, 1972 June 12):
Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium2.tripod.com/weblog/spacewatchtower/gaw/
Electronic Mail: < gawalsh@planetarium.cc >
Project Director, Friends of the Zeiss: Link >>> http://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/fotz/
SpaceWatchtower Editor / Author: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/
Formerly Astronomical Observatory Coordinator & Planetarium Lecturer, original Buhl Planetarium & Institute of Popular Science (a.k.a. Buhl Science Center), America's fifth major planetarium and Pittsburgh's science & technology museum from 1939 to 1991.
Formerly Trustee, Andrew Carnegie Free Library and Music Hall, Pittsburgh suburb of Carnegie, Pennsylvania, the fourth of only five libraries where both construction and endowment funded by famous industrialist & philanthropist Andrew Carnegie.
Author of History Web Sites on the Internet --
* Buhl Planetarium, Pittsburgh: Link >>> http://www.planetarium.cc Buhl Observatory: Link >>> http://spacewatchtower.blogspot.com/2016/11/75th-anniversary-americas-5th-public.html
* Adler Planetarium, Chicago: Link >>> http://adlerplanetarium.tripod.com
* Astronomer, Educator, Optician John A. Brashear: Link >>> http://johnbrashear.tripod.com
* Andrew Carnegie & Carnegie Libraries: Link >>> http://www.andrewcarnegie.cc

 * Other Walsh-Authored Blog & Web-Sites: Link >>> https://buhlplanetarium.tripod.com/gawweb.html